Plasticity induced bonding

ABSTRACT

Methods and apparatuses for bonding polymeric parts are disclosed. Specifically, in one embodiment, the polymeric parts are bonded by plastically deforming them against each other while they are below the glass transition temperatures.

RELATED APPLICATIONS

This application is a divisional of U.S. patent application Ser. No.15/312,446, filed Nov. 18, 2016, which is a national stage filing under35 U.S.C. 371 of International Patent Application No. PCT/US2015/031666,filed on May 20, 2015 which claims the benefit of U.S. ProvisionalPatent Application No. 62/000,594 filed on May 20, 2014 and U.S.Provisional Patent Application No. 62/014,608 filed on Jun. 19, 2014,each of which are incorporated herein by reference in their entirety.

FIELD

Disclosed embodiments are related to plasticity induced bonding.

BACKGROUND

There are many methods used for bonding two polymeric parts together.For example, adhesives, surface modifications, direct heating, and/or ortemperature related methods such as dielectric-heating, ultrasound,laser, or micro-wave based heating might be used to bond the polymericparts. More specifically, heat-related polymer adhesion methods havebeen practiced for decades. During such processes, when two polymericparts are brought into contact with each other at a temperature abovetheir respective glass transition temperatures and held under low tomoderate pressures, the polymer chains from the two sides inter-diffuseto establish entanglements across the interface and thereby causingbonding. As a result of this inter-penetration and entanglement, cracksoptically disappear during healing and strong bonds are developedbetween the two surfaces after welding.

SUMMARY

In one embodiment, a method includes: placing a first polymeric part incontact with a second polymeric part; and plastically deforming thefirst polymeric part and the second polymeric part against each other tobond the first polymeric part to the second polymeric part.Additionally, during the plastic deformation, a temperature of the firstpolymeric part is less than a glass transition temperature of the firstpolymeric part and a temperature of the second polymeric part is lessthan a glass transition temperature of the second polymeric part.

In another embodiment, a method includes: placing a first polymeric partin contact with a second polymeric part; applying a compressive stressbetween the first polymeric part and the second polymeric part. Theapplied compressive stress causes plastic deformation in both the firstpolymeric part and the second polymeric part, and the compressive stressis applied for a sufficient period of time to form a bond between thefirst polymeric part and the second polymeric part. During this process,the applied compressive stress is greater than a yield strength of thefirst polymeric part and a yield strength of the second polymeric part,and the compressive stress is less than an ultimate compressive strengthof the first polymeric part and an ultimate compressive strength of thesecond polymeric part. Additionally, while the compressive stress isapplied, a temperature of the first polymeric part is less than a glasstransition temperature of the first polymeric part and a temperature ofthe second polymeric part is less than a glass transition temperature ofthe second polymeric part.

In yet another embodiment, an apparatus includes a pressing elementconstructed and arranged to apply a compressive force to a first part incontact with a second part. The apparatus also includes a controller inelectrical communication with the pressing element. The controllercontrols the pressing element to apply a compressive stress to the firstpart and the second part that is greater than a yield strength and lessthan an ultimate compressive strength of both the first part and thesecond part. Additionally, the controller controls the pressing elementto plastically deform the first part and the second part to acompressive strain between about 1% and a compressive strain limit ofboth the first part and the second part.

It should be appreciated that the foregoing concepts, and additionalconcepts discussed below, may be arranged in any suitable combination,as the present disclosure is not limited in this respect. Further, otheradvantages and novel features of the present disclosure will becomeapparent from the following detailed description of various non-limitingembodiments when considered in conjunction with the accompanyingfigures.

BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF DRAWINGS

The accompanying drawings are not intended to be drawn to scale. In thedrawings, each identical or nearly identical component that isillustrated in various figures may be represented by a like numeral. Forpurposes of clarity, not every component may be labeled in everydrawing. In the drawings:

FIG. 1A is a schematic representation of polymer adhesion using atypical heat treatment;

FIG. 1B is a schematic representation of polymer adhesion usingplasticity induced bonding;

FIG. 2 is a schematic of rolling using plasticity induced bonding

FIG. 3A is a schematic representation of a pair of pressing surfaces andassociated polymeric parts used to perform plasticity induced bonding;

FIG. 3B is a schematic representation of the pair of pressing surfacesand the bonded polymeric part of FIG. 3A after plasticity inducedbonding;

FIG. 4 is a schematic representation of a first and second polymericpart fully positioned between two opposing rollers;

FIG. 5 is a schematic representation of a first and second polymericpart positioned with opposing rollers located on an interior portion ofthe overlapping parts;

FIG. 6 is a schematic representation of a first and second polymericpart positioned with opposing rollers located on an aligned outer edge;

FIG. 7 is a schematic representation of a first and second polymericpart positioned with a lap joint between two opposing rollers;

FIG. 8 is a schematic representation of a first and second polymericpart positioned between two opposing rollers and including anintermediate material between the two polymeric parts;

FIG. 9 is a schematic representation of first and second polymeric partshaving their bonding surfaces heated prior to undergoing plasticityinduced bonding using a set of rollers;

FIG. 10 is a schematic representation of a roll bonding system used toperform plasticity induced bonding;

FIG. 11 is a schematic representation of a perfect plastic deformationanalysis of the line loading of a thin strip using two opposing rollers;

FIG. 12 is a schematic representation of a potential energy landscapeduring plastic-relaxation;

FIG. 13 is a schematic representation of polymer mobility, plasticrelaxation, and plastic deformation of a polymer;

FIG. 14 is a schematic representation of two polymeric parts includingpolymer chains that do not include a polymer chain end located near theinterface;

FIG. 15A is a schematic representation of two polymeric parts includinga polymer chain with a polymer chain end located near the interface;

FIG. 15B is a schematic representation of the two polymeric parts ofFIG. 15A after plasticity induced bonding where the polymer chains ofthe two parts have become entangled;

FIG. 16 is a schematic representation of a plasticizer having been addedto a polymer matrix;

FIG. 17 is a graph of stress versus strain for different amounts ofpolyethylene glycol-400 (PEG 400) in a HPMC (e3:e15 in a 1:1 ratio)system;

FIG. 18A is a photograph of a roll bonding system and a bonded partbeing exiting from the rollers;

FIG. 18B is a photograph of the bonded part of FIG. 18A;

FIG. 19A is a photograph of a bonded part formed using a pressingsurface arrangement;

FIG. 19B depicts bonding and failure of plastic layers versus increasingstress;

FIG. 20A is a schematic representation of a lap specimen used forhorizontally oriented shear testing;

FIG. 20B is a schematic representation of a lap specimen used forvertically oriented shear testing;

FIG. 21 is a graph of shear strength versus applied compressive strainused during plasticity-induced bonding;

FIG. 22 is a schematic representation of a peel test;

FIG. 23A is a graph of work done per unit area during advance of thecrack versus applied compressive plastic-strain (i.e. thicknessreduction) used during bonding;

FIG. 23B is a graph of the critical-energy-release-rate versus appliedcompressive strain using an appropriate correction factor on FIG. 23A;

FIG. 24 is a graph of fracture toughness versus plastic strain fordifferent combinations of HPMC E3/E15 and PEG, where the effect ofgravity has been eliminated in T-peel test;

FIG. 25 is a schematic representation of polymer chains within twoadjacent parts with increasing amounts of plastic strain applied;

FIG. 26A is a scanning electron micrograph of a surface morphology of afilm prior to plasticity induced bonding; and

FIG. 26B is a scanning electron micrograph of a fracture surfacemorphology of a film after plasticity induced bonding and de-bonding;

FIG. 27A-27C are comparisons of scanning electron micrograph images offilm surfaces before bonding and fracture surfaces after debonding fordifferent combinations of HPMC E3/E15 and PEG, where 5%-20% plasticstrain was imposed during bonding;

FIG. 28 depicts combinations of time, radial speed, and roller radius toprovide a desired strain rate for a roller device.

DETAILED DESCRIPTION

The inventors have recognized that it may be desirable to developbonding methods and apparatuses that reduce, and/or eliminate, theapplication of high temperatures, long healing times, adhesives, and orsurface modifications used during typical polymer bonding processes.Additionally, the inventors have recognized that it may be desirable toprovide methods and apparatuses for continuously manufacturing bondedpolymeric films and parts. For example, a continuous bonding methodmight be used to form thin polymeric films used in drug products whilepossibly: minimizing the generated waste; reducing the use of energy andraw materials; providing quality checks in line; and/or improvingreliability, consistency, and/or flexibility of a bonding process.

In view of the above, the inventors have recognized the benefitsassociated with bonding polymers below their glass transitiontemperature thus reducing, and/or substantially eliminating, the need toprovide heat energy to form a bond. More specifically, the inventorshave recognized that polymers subjected to plastic deformation belowtheir glass transition temperatures results inenhanced-molecular-mobility of polymer chains within the polymer-matrixthat may cause polymer chain-entanglement across an interface betweentwo adjacent polymeric parts. This polymer chain entanglement across theinterface results in a bond between the two polymeric parts.Additionally, it is possible such a bonding method may also result inreduced bonding times on the order of seconds to minutes as compared totypical heat treatment based bonding methods.

In one embodiment, bonding of two or more polymeric parts includesplacing a first polymeric part in contact with a second polymeric partalong an interface. The first and second polymeric parts are thenplastically deformed against each other along their interface. Thisplastic deformation includes at least the regions of the first andsecond polymeric parts adjacent to the interface. This plasticdeformation results in bonding of the first polymeric part the secondpolymeric part. Without wishing to be bound by theory, it is believedthat polymeric chains become entangled across the interface due toincreased polymer chain mobility during the deformation. In addition tothe above, the temperature of the first and second polymeric part may bemaintained below their respective glass transition temperatures duringthe applied plastic deformation.

As noted above, the applied plastic deformation is applied to at leastthe regions of the polymeric parts surrounding their interfaces. Forexample, in some embodiments, the applied plastic deformation may belocalized to a bonding region adjacent to the interface between thepolymeric parts. However, in some embodiments, in order to enhanceuniformity and integrity of the bond, it may be desirable to uniformlydeform the polymeric parts. In such an embodiment, the polymeric partsmay be subjected to substantially uniform bulk deformations across theirentire cross-sectional profiles. Such a deformation may be provided by aplane strain condition. However, embodiments in which a plasticdeformation is applied without the use of a plane strain condition arealso contemplated.

While in some embodiments, the plastic strain may be directlycontrolled, in other embodiments, an applied compressive stress iscontrolled and applied for a predetermined amount of time. For example,after placing two or more polymeric parts in contact with one anotheralong an interface, a compressive stress that is greater than a yieldstrength of each of the two or more polymeric parts is applied. In oneembodiment, the compressive stress may be between about 2 to 5 times acompressive yield strength of each of the parts though other stressesmight also be used. The applied compressive stress may also be less thanan ultimate compressive strength of each of the two or more polymericparts. The compressive stress may be applied for a sufficient period oftime so as to cause active/plastic deformation of the two or morepolymeric parts and form a bond along their interface. Additionally, thecompressive stress may either be constant or it may be varied during abonding process as the disclosure is not limited in this fashion.

Without wishing to be bound by theory, suitable times to form a bondalong an interface between adjacent polymeric parts will depend onvarious factors such as the applied compressive stress, a temperature ofthe polymeric parts versus their glass transition temperatures, thepolymer chain lengths, as well as other appropriate processing factors.However, in one embodiment, the processing factors are selected suchthat the time to form a bond is less than about 5 min., 1 min., 30seconds, 10 seconds, 1 second, 0.1 seconds, or any other appropriatetime scale. Additionally, it should be understood that the time limit toform a bond using plasticity induced bonding may be greater than 0.01seconds, 0.1 seconds, 1 second, or any other appropriate time scale asthe disclosure is also not limited in this fashion either. Combinationsof the above ranges are possible. For example, the bonding time may bebetween about 0.01 second and 1 min. However, it should be understoodthat any appropriate bonding time may be used as the disclosure is notlimited in this fashion.

As described in more detail below, one of the processing factorsaffecting the overall bond strength includes the amount of plasticdeformation applied to the polymeric parts. Additionally, and withoutwishing to be bound by theory, initially there is an increasing bondstrength with increasing applied plastic strain. However, for strainsabove an optimal plastic strain, the bonding strength decreases. Thisoptimal plastic strain will vary depending on the particular polymersand processing parameters used. It should also be noted that, above themaximum compressive strain limits of the polymeric materials, the bondedpart will fail. In view of the above, in one embodiment, the appliedcompressive strain may include a plastic strain that is greater thanabout 1%, 2%, 3%, 4%, 5%, 10%, 15%, 20%, or any other appropriatecompressive strain sufficient to provide plasticity induced bonding.Additionally, the applied compressive strain may be less than either thecompressive strain limit of the polymeric parts being deformed or thecompressive strain may be less than or equal to about the optimalplastic strain of the materials being used. Appropriate polymers mayalso have compressive strain limits that are less than about 40%, 30%,20%, or any other appropriate strain. However, it should be understoodthat polymers with compressive strain limits both greater than and lessthan those noted above might also be used. For example, a particularpolymeric material being deformed may have a compressive strain limit ofabout 45% and an optimal plastic strain for plasticity induced bondingof about 15%. In such an embodiment, the applied compressive strain maybe between about 5% and 45% or between about 10% and 20%. In anotherembodiment, the applied strain may be between about 1% and a compressivestrain limit of the material.

The currently described plasticity induced bonding processes may be usedto form a number of different bonded geometries as described in moredetail with regards to the figures. For example, in one embodiment, abond may be formed along an entire interface between two adjacentpolymeric parts. Alternatively, the bond may only be formed along aportion of the interface. For instance, the bond may be formed along atleast one of the edges of the adjacent polymeric parts while leaving theremaining portion of the interface unbonded. Examples of such anembodiment might be two adjacent plastic films that are bonded at theiredges to form a larger sheet, an open pouch, and/or a closed pouch. Inother embodiments, the polymeric parts might be overlapped to form a lapjoint in a configuration similar to sequentially layered shingles. Herethe bond would be formed at the overlapping portion of the polymericparts forming the lap joint. In yet another embodiment, the plasticityinduced bond may be formed on an interior portion of the interfacelocated between the outer edges of the overlapping polymeric parts. Inview of the above, it should be understood that the described plasticityinduced bonding processes may be used with any number of differentgeometries and that the current disclosure should not be limited to anyparticular arrangement or implementation. Instead, the currentlydescribed processes may be used for any number of applications andarrangements.

The polymeric parts described herein for use in a plasticity inducedbonding process may take any number of different forms. Appropriateforms include, but are not limited to, films, sheets, bars, rods,laminates, fibers, bulk parts, discrete portions of parts, and/orcombinations of the above. Therefore, it should be understood that anyappropriate form of polymeric parts might be used as the disclosure isnot omitted in this fashion.

Without wishing to be bound by theory, the strength of a plasticityinduced bond is affected by the number of polymer chains entangled alongan interface between two polymeric parts, the lengths of the polymerchains penetrating across the interface, and the pull out force per unitlength of the polymer chains. However, these variables are affected by anumber of different mechanical processing parameters and materialparameters as described below. However, while various processing factorsare described below, it should be understood that any bonding process isa balancing of processing and performance needs. Consequently, variouscombinations of the factors noted herein may be used to provide adesired balancing of processing needs and bonding strength. Therefore,the described plasticity induced bonding processes should not be limitedto any particular combination of processing factors.

There are a number of different mechanical processing parameters thatmay be used to alter processing times, energies, and resulting bondstrengths. For example, the total amount of plastic strain will affectthe bonding strength as noted above and described in more detail below.Additionally, varying strain rates may also effect the bonding strength.Additionally, increasing a temperature of the polymeric parts duringplasticity induced bonding will result in larger numbers of diffusionrelaxation-based processes occurring faster thus resulting in moreentanglements across the interface and an increased bonding strength.However, this comes with the cost of increased energy usage due toheating the materials being bonded.

There are also a number of different material parameters that may beused to alter processing times, energies and resulting bond strengths aswell. These parameters include, but are not limited to, polymer chainlengths, the number of polymer chain ends available along an interface,the number of polymer chains present along an interface, and the chainend orientations. For example, and without wishing to be bound bytheory, extremely long polymer chains may limit the number of polymerchains, and correspondingly the number of polymer chain ends, availablealong an interface to form entanglements across the interface. However,polymer chains that are too short do not offer sufficient lengths toprovide a desired entanglement across the interface. In addition to theavailability of appropriate numbers, and lengths of chain ends,available along an interface, the relaxation mechanisms of the polymerchains also affect the plasticity induced bond. Without wishing to bebound by theory, it is believed that the relaxation kinetics affect theplasticity induced bond because it governs the mobility, and thus theamount of material and number of polymer chains available, to formentanglements across the interface. Appropriate parameters that may beused to control the relaxation kinetics include, but are not limited to,polymer chain lengths, polymer chain stiffness, plasticizers, amounts ofcross linking, amounts of crystallinity, and activation energies.Without wishing to be bound by theory, the polymer chain stiffness andactivation energies are more a consequence of polymer selection anddesign while shorter polymer chains and inclusion of plasticizers willresult in increased relaxation kinetics. Therefore, specific polymersmay be selected, or designed/engineered, to provide a desired materialperformance, and/or those same polymers may be further controlling thepolymer chain length, amount of cross linking, amount of crystallinity,inclusion of plasticizers, and/or polymer molecular weights as describedin more detail below.

It should be understood that any appropriate polymer might be used for aplasticity induced bonding process. However in one embodiment, a polymermay have a molecular weight greater than about 20,000; 50,000; 100,000;or any other appropriate molecular weight. Additionally, the polymer mayhave a molecular weight that is less than about 500,000; 250,000;100,000; or any other appropriate molecular weight. For example, apolymer may have a molecular weight between about 20,000 and 500,000 orbetween about 20,000 and 100,000.

Generally, the presently described plasticity induced bonding processesmay be used with any appropriate polymeric material showing sufficientviscoelastic and/or viscoplastic properties to facilitate the formationof entanglements across an interface in response to applied stresses orplastic deformations. Appropriate polymers include amorphous polymersand semi-crystalline polymers with sufficiently low crystallinity topermit sufficient molecular mobility to form a bond during deformation.The presence of crystallinity within a polymer may either be due tocrystallinity of the polymer itself, or it may be due to the inclusionof crystalline drugs or other additives embedded within the polymermatrix. In either case, and without wishing to be bound by theory,crystalline domains within a polymeric material act to limit themolecular mobility of the polymer chains, and thus the bonding abilityof these polymers, even when the amorphous domains are above their glasstransition temperature. While the permissible amount of crystallinitywill vary depending on the particular polymer, in some embodiments, thecrystallinity of a polymer may be less than about 60%, 50%, 40%, 30%, orany other appropriate crystallinity. In view of the above, the polymericmaterial used in the two or more polymeric parts may be at leastpartially amorphous or fully amorphous depending on the particularembodiment.

It should be understood that any appropriate polymer, or polymer blend,capable of forming a plasticity induced bond with another polymer mightbe used with the currently described processes. For example, in someembodiments, the polymeric material used for one or both of thepolymeric parts may include hydroxylpropyl methylcellulose (HPMC),Poly(methyl methacrylate) (PMMA), Polystyrene (PS), polybutadiene (BR),polyisoprene (IR), polyethylene (PE), polydimethylsiloxane (PDMS)and/orPolycarbonate (PC). Alternatively, in some embodiments the polymericmaterial used for one or both of the polymeric parts may be suitable foruse in a pharmaceutical application. Appropriate polymers for such anapplication include, but are not limited to, polyvinyl acetate (PVA),hydroxypropylcellulose (HPC), hydroxyethylcellulose, sodiumcarboxymethyl cellulose (NAMCMC) and/or polyvinylpyrrolidone (trade nameKollidon) to name a few.

As noted above, in some embodiments, a plasticizer may be included toimprove the relaxation kinetics and/or compressive strain limit of aparticular polymer. For example, a sufficient amount of plasticizer maybe added to a particular polymer to provide a compressive strain limitgreater than about 10%, 20%, 30%, 40%, or any other appropriate amountof strain. Depending on the embodiment, the amount of plasticizer may beselected to provide a compressive strain limit that is less than 100%,80%, 60%, or any other appropriate amount of strain. Appropriateplasticizers include polyethylene glycol (PEG), triacetin, glycerol,citrate esters, phthalate esters, dibutyl sebacate, sorbitol, ethyleneglycol diethyl ether, and/or any other appropriate plasticizer. Whilethe amount of plasticizer will be dependent upon the particular polymerand plasticizer being used, in some embodiments, the plasticizers may bepresent in weight percentages greater than about 1%, 5%, 10%, 15%, 20%or any other appropriate weight percent. Additionally, the plasticizermay be present in weight percentages that are less than about 60%, 50%,40%, 30%, 20%, 10%, or any other appropriate weight percent. Forexample, a polymer including HPMC and PEG in a weight percentage betweenabout 4% and 20% might be used to provide a polymer exhibitingcompressive strain limits between about 35% and 45%. While particularplasticizers and composition proportions are noted above, it should beunderstood that other appropriate plasticizers in different amountsmight also be used as the disclosure is not limited in this fashion.

Depending on the embodiment, the two or more polymeric parts used in aplasticity induced bonding process may be made from the same polymericmaterials. However, in other alternative embodiments, the two or morepolymeric parts may be made from different polymeric materials. Thesedifferent polymeric materials may simply exhibit sufficient plasticstrain limits and relaxation kinetics to form a bond across theirinterface via entanglement of the polymer chains. Alternatively, thepolymeric parts may include polymers that form a di-block copolymer whencombined in addition to the creation of possible entanglements acrossthe interface during plastic deformation. In such an embodiment, thepolymeric parts are made from two different polymers including connectorchains at the interface. The polymeric parts are then plasticallydeformed together to induce entanglement and mixing of the polymers inthe region surrounding their interface. Without wishing to be bound bytheory, during this deformation, the connector chains will find theirway to the plastically deforming bulks on both sides of the interfaceleading to effective stitching of polymer chains on either side of theinterface and an increased bonding strength.

In another embodiment, one or more of the polymeric parts subjected toplasticity induced bonding is capable of being cross-linked. However,prior to bonding the parts using plasticity induced bonding, thepolymeric parts may include sufficiently small amounts of cross-linkingto permit the bonding process. Therefore, at least some entanglement ofpolymer chains near and/or across interface between the parts isexpected to occur during a plasticity induced bonding process. In suchan embodiment, the polymeric parts may include an appropriatecross-linking agent throughout the material so that the polymeric partscan be cross-linked after bonding using a subsequent application ofheat, radiation such as infrared to ultraviolet, or other appropriatetype of energy. Alternatively, or in addition to the above, across-linking agent may be applied at an interface between two polymericparts prior to plastic deformation. During plastic deformation of thepolymeric parts where both sides of the interface is deformed, thecross-linking agent may show enhanced diffusion across the interface.Once a sufficient degree of diffusion and/or interpenetration of thecross-linking agent and polymer chains across the interface hasoccurred, the polymeric parts may be subsequently subjected to anappropriate energy source to cross-link the polymer including thecross-linking agent located in the region surrounding the interface.

In some embodiments, two polymeric parts that are to be bonded to oneanother may exhibit low adhesion to one another and/or limitedplasticity for any number of reasons. In such an embodiment, it may bedesirable to use another polymeric material in between the two parts tobe bonded. For example a first polymeric part and a second polymericpart may be made from first and second polymers. A third polymeric partmade from a third polymer may then be introduced as an intermediatematerial between the first and second parts. Depending on theembodiment, the yield strength of the third polymeric part may be lessthan the yield strength of the first polymeric part and/or the secondpolymeric part. Similarly, the third polymeric part may have acompressive strain limit that is greater than at least one of thecompressive strain limit of the first polymeric part and/or the secondpolymeric part. Once appropriately arranged, the first, second, andthird polymeric parts are subjected to a plasticity induced bondingprocess as described herein with the polymer chains from the thirdpolymeric part forming entanglements across its respective interfaceswith the first and second polymeric parts. In such an embodiment, theapplied stress is sufficient to cause plastic deformation in each of thefirst, second, and third polymeric parts. It should be understood thatthe third polymeric part may either constitute a film, coating, or abulk part located between the first and second polymeric parts as thedisclosure is not limited to any particular configuration.

In some instances, it may be desirable to bond a particular type ofpolymer that does not exhibit sufficient plasticity at a giventemperature including, for example, room temperature. Without wishing tobe bound by theory, one way in which to increase the amount ofplasticity exhibited by a particular polymer is to heat the polymerabove room temperature to some fraction of its glass transitiontemperature (T_(g)). Depending on the particular embodiment, thetemperature of the first and/or second polymeric parts may be greaterthan about 0.7T_(g), 0.8T_(g), 0.9T_(g), or any other appropriatefraction of their respective glass transition temperatures.Additionally, the temperature of the first and/or second polymeric partsmay be less than or equal to about 0.95T_(g), 0.9T_(g), 0.8T_(g), or anyother appropriate fraction of their respective glass transitiontemperatures. Please note that a polymer having a glass transitiontemperature of 100° C. (373 K) would be at approximately 0.8T_(g) atroom temperature (assumed to be 290 K) and a polymer having a glasstransition temperature of 200° C. (373 K) would be at approximately0.6T_(g) at room temperature. While bonding below the glass transitionof a material is noted above, it should be understood that deformationinduced bonding may also be used at or above the glass transition of amaterial to further facilitate, enhance, or speed up a bonding process.

Regarding the above noted application of elevated temperatures to one ormore of the polymeric parts, in one embodiment, the elevatedtemperatures is uniformly applied across the bulk of the polymericparts. In this embodiment, the temperature of the polymeric parts ismaintained below the glass transition temperature. Alternatively, insome embodiments, only the bonding surfaces located along the interfacebetween the polymeric parts is heated while the bulk of the polymericparts remain at a lower temperature below their glass transitiontemperatures. In such an embodiment, the temperature of the heatedbonding surfaces may either be below the glass transition temperature asnoted above, or the bonding surfaces may be at or above the glasstransition temperature as the disclosure is not so limited.Additionally, the depth of the heated polymer on one, or both of thebonding surfaces, may be at least greater than a radius of gyration ofthe polymer chains in those surfaces. In some embodiments, a bondingsurface may be heated between about 0.1 μm and 5 μm or between about 1μm and 5 μm. However, any other appropriate heating depth might also beused. Without wishing to be bound by theory, even if polymer chainslocated on a bonding surface heated to above the glass transitiontemperature are tethered to an underlying bulk polymer below the glasstransition temperature, when the bulk starts to plastically deformduring a plasticity induced bonding process, even the tethered polymerchains will escape to form entanglements across the interface.

In some embodiments, an appropriate heater capable of heating either thebulk or surface of the polymeric part may be used as described above. Inaddition, the heater may be constructed so that it applies heat eitherdirectly or indirectly to the polymeric parts. For example, ultrasonichorns, radiant heat sources, direct contact heating elements,microwaves, lasers, and/or other appropriate sources might be used.Additionally, in embodiments where the polymeric parts are electricallyconductive, resistive heating of the polymeric part and/orradiofrequency heating of the polymeric part might be used. Againregardless of the specific type of heating source used, a heater may becontrolled to provide a desired temperature for either a bulk of thepolymeric parts, or for a desired depth relative to the bonding surfacesof the polymeric parts. As discussed in more detail below, a controllermay be in electrical communication to control the heater based on asensed temperature of the polymeric parts and/or the bonding surfaces.

It should be understood that any apparatus capable of applying a desiredplastic deformation to two or more polymeric parts might be used toperform plasticity induced bonding. For example, in one embodiment, apressing element is constructed to either accept individual arrangementsof two or more polymeric parts for bonding. Alternatively, continuous,or semi-continuous, parts might be supplied to the pressing element. Ineither case, the pressing element is constructed and arranged to apply acompressive pressure to the polymeric parts in order to apply a desiredcompressive plastic deformation. Several nonlimiting examples of anappropriate pressing element include, but are not limited to, one ormore rollers and one or more pressing platens. In instances where one ormore rollers are used to apply the desired plastic deformation, theratio of the thickness of the polymeric parts being deformed to theradius of the one or more rollers may be between about 0.001 and 1 orbetween about 0.001 and 0.1. However, ratios both greater than and lessthan those noted above are also contemplated.

Depending on the particular embodiment, the pressing element may beconstructed so that it applies a substantially bulk deformation to thepolymeric parts. In some embodiments, the applied strain may besubstantially uniform, or it may be non-uniform, across the bulk of thespecimen as the disclosure is not limited to any particular applicationof strain. However, in either case, to facilitate plasticity inducedbonding, in some embodiments it is desirable to induce plasticity at theinterface between the polymeric parts to enhance the diffusion andinterpenetration of the polymer chains. For example, in one embodiment,the pressing element may apply a plane strain to the polymeric parts.This active/plastic bulk deformation of the polymeric material in theparts may facilitate the enhanced molecular mobilization of thepolymeric material relative to an interface to create a bond. In someembodiments, the pressing element may simply be constructed to apply aconstant pressure, strain rate, and/or amount of total strain for aparticular bonding process. Alternatively, in some embodiments, thepressing element is in electrical communication with a controller thatcontrols the present element. The controller may control the pressingelement to apply a desired compressive stress, compressive strain,and/or compressive strain rate for a desired bonding process. Thiscontrol may either be used to maintain a desired parameter, or todynamically alter it, as the disclosure is not so limited. In such anembodiment, the pressing element may also be associated with one or moresensors in electrical communication with the controller. The sensors maymeasure various quantities such as a deformation, applied force, appliedpressure, temperature, or any other appropriate parameter. Additionally,appropriate sensors might include devices such as digital micrometers,linear voltage displacement transducers, strain gauges, load cells,thermistors, thermocouples, noncontact temperature sensors such as IRcameras and pyrometers, and any other appropriate sensors. Based on theinputs from these one or more sensors, the controller may control theapplied compressive pressure, total compressive strain, compressivestrain rate, material feed rate, temperature, and/or any otherappropriate parameter associated with a plasticity induced bondingprocess.

As noted above, in some embodiments, a plasticity induced bondingprocess may be performed continuously. In one specific embodiment, acontinuous film emerging from a solvent casting process, or otherappropriate process, may be spun on a needle or other appropriatestructure resulting in overlap of the curved surfaces. These curvedsurfaces could be continuously bonded using a plasticity induced bondingprocess. Alternatively, in another embodiment, a continuous, orsemicontinuous, thin-film could be cast and slit into smaller widthsections along its length. The individual strips could then be folded ontop of each other using appropriate arrangements including, for example,converging channels. Additionally, a film might be rotated on top ofanother film or both films might be rotated 90° to bring them intocontact with each other. In either case once the films are in contactwith one another, and a plasticity induced bonding process may beapplied to one or more locations along the films in a continuous bondingprocess. While several continuous bonding processes are described above,it should be understood that the disclosure is not limited to only thecontinuous bonding processes and arrangements described herein anddepicted in the figures.

Turning now to the figures, several nonlimiting embodiments of aplasticity induced bonding process are described in more detail. For thesake of clarity, most of the illustrated plasticity induced bondingprocesses are depicted as being applied to only two polymeric parts.However, it should be understood that a plasticity induced bondingprocess may be applied to any number of polymeric parts including avariety of bonding interface arrangements as the disclosure is notlimited to any particular number or arrangement of parts. Additionally,the plasticity induced bonding processes is depicted as being primarilyapplied to films. However, plasticity induced bonding processes may alsobe applied to bulk polymeric parts, as well as portions of bulkpolymeric parts, as the disclosure is not limited in this fashion.

FIG. 1A depicts a typical bonding process where a first polymeric part 2and a second polymeric part 4 are brought into contact with one anotheralong an interface 8. Subsequently, elevated temperatures above theglass transition temperature in combination with relatively lowpressures are applied over the timeframe of minutes or hours in order tobond the parts. During this bonding process, the polymer chains 6located within both the first and second parts migrate across theinterface and become entangled to form the bonded part 12.

In contrast to typical bonding processes, as illustrated in FIG. 1B, aplasticity induced bonding process may be conducted using an interface 8located between first and second polymeric parts 2 and 4. For example,as the polymeric parts are deformed from an initial undeformed state 10a to a plastically deformed state 10 b to form a bond at the interfaceas a thickness of the parts is decreased indicating bulk plasticdeformation. Without wishing to be bound by theory, during the activeplastic deformation of the first and second polymeric parts to a desiredtotal compressive strain, microscopic molecular mobility arising fromthe plastic deformation leads to interdiffusion and entanglement of thepolymer chains 6 across the interface to form the bonded part 12.

FIG. 2 presents a schematic layout of a rolling apparatus used forimplementing a plasticity induced bonding process. In the depictedembodiment, the system includes two opposing rollers 14 rotating inopposite directions. The first polymeric part 2 and the second polymericpart 4 correspond to two continuous films arranged with one on top ofthe other in the current embodiment. The adjacent polymeric partsinclude an interface 8 located between them. During the illustratedbonding process, the polymeric parts are initially fed into the rollersat a first velocity V₁ and a combined thickness of t₁ at an entry to therolling device. As the first and second polymeric parts 2 and 4 passthrough the nip between the rollers 14, the polymeric parts areuniformly actively/plastically deformed throughout their bulk. Thisplastic deformation leads to increased molecular mobilization across theinterface 8 resulting in bonding of the two parts to one another. Theresulting end product is a bonded part 12 exiting the rollers 14 at avelocity V₂ and reduced thickness t₂. While there may be some elasticspring back of the parts after the bonding process, the nominal plasticstrain (e^(p)) applied to the parts may be estimated as the magnitude ofthe ratio of the difference between the two thicknesses t₁ and t₂ to theinitial thickness t₁. The nominal plastic strain may be selected toprovide a sufficient amount of plastic strain to provide sufficientlystrong plastic deformation induced bond. In some embodiments, thecomponents driving the rollers, not depicted, may be in electricalcommunication with a controller 26.

FIGS. 3A and 3B present another embodiment of an apparatus capable ofimplementing a plasticity induced bonding process. In the depictedembodiment, the apparatus is a simple compression apparatus whichincludes a pressing surface 16. The pressing surface 16 may correspondto a piston, shaft, platen, or other appropriate structure capable ofapplying a pressure to a surface. The apparatus also includes acorresponding chamber 18 or other appropriate pressing surface oppositethe pressing surface 16. During a plasticity induced bonding process, aplurality polymeric parts, e.g. 2, 4, and 20, which may include multipleinterfaces 10, are positioned between the pressing surface 16 and thechamber 18. A compressive pressure P is then applied to the polymericparts as the pressing surface 16 is displaced downwards towards a bottomsurface of the pressing chamber 18. Similar to the above noted rollers,the applied compressive pressure results in increased molecularmobilization across the one or more interfaces 8 located between thepolymeric parts resulting in entanglement of the polymeric chains andhence bonding. Again the result is a bonded part 12. Depending on theembodiment, the components driving pressing surface 16, not depicted,may be in electrical communication with a controller 26.

Without wishing to be bound by theory, it should be noted that the abovedescribed apparatuses apply non-hydrostatic stresses to the polymericparts to provide an active/plastic deformation. In contrast, ahydrostatic stress or pressure will not result in active/plasticdeformation of a part due to the same pressure being applied normal toeach surface of a part. Consequently, a hydrostatic pressure or stresswould not result in the enhanced molecular mobilization and plasticityinduced bonding as described above.

Various arrangements for forming a plasticity induced bond between twopolymeric parts are illustrated in FIGS. 4-7.

FIG. 4 depicts an embodiment where a first polymeric part 2 and secondpolymeric part 4 are fully positioned between two opposing rollers 14.Consequently, the plasticity induced bond formed between them willextend across the entire interface 10. Such an embodiment might beuseful for forming double thickness, triple thickness, or otherthickness films. However, this arrangement may also be applied to otherconfigurations as well.

FIG. 5 illustrates an embodiment where a first polymeric part 2 andsecond polymeric part 4 are only partially positioned between twoopposing rollers 14. Specifically, the rollers are located on aninterior portion of the polymeric parts between their exterior edges.Consequently, plasticity induced bonding will only occur within thisinterior portion of the polymeric parts located between the rollers 14.Similarly, FIG. 6 depicts an embodiment where the rollers 14 are locatedalong an edge of two polymeric parts 2 and 4 positioned with one on topof the other. Therefore, the plasticity induced bond will only be formedon a portion of the interface 10. However, in this particularembodiment, the bond will correspond to a bond along an exterior edge ofthe polymeric parts. This particular arrangement might be useful for theformation of seals along an edge of a polymeric pouch or capsule.

FIG. 7 depicts an embodiment of a plasticity induced bonding processused to form a lap joint between two opposing rollers. As illustrated inthe figure, only a portion of the first polymeric part 2 and secondpolymeric part 4 are overlapped with one another with the remainingportions of the polymeric parts extending in opposite directions similarto overlapping shingles. The rollers 14 then form a plasticity inducedbond along at least a portion of the overlapped interface 10.

While specific arrangements for forming a plasticity induced bondbetween two polymeric parts has been discussed above and illustrated infigures, it should be understood that other arrangements are alsopossible. Additionally, while these arrangements have been depicted asbeing formed using a pair of opposing rollers, other apparatuses capableof forming a plasticity induced bond are also contemplated as notedpreviously.

FIG. 8 presents an embodiment where an intermediate polymeric material22 is positioned at an interface 8 located between two polymeric parts 2and 4. As noted previously, this intermediate material may be in theform of a coating, film, or bulk part as the disclosure is not solimited. Additionally, in instances where the first and second polymericparts 2 and 4 show limited adhesion to one another and/or plasticity,the intermediate material may have an yield strength that is less thanyield strength of one or both of the other polymeric parts and acompressive strain limit that is greater than one or both of the otherpolymeric parts. In either case, upon sufficient plastic deformation ofthe resulting stack, a plasticity induced bond is formed across theinterfaces between the intermediate material 22 and the two polymericparts located on opposing sides of the intermediate material.

FIG. 9 depicts an embodiment of a system for performing plasticityinduced bonding similar to the rollers depicted in FIG. 2. However, inthe current embodiment, the system also includes one or more heaters 24used for heating the bonding surfaces 2 a and 4 a of the polymericparts. As depicted in the figure, the heater is using a radiant heatsource that applies heat to the bonding surfaces 2 a and 4 a which arelocated on opposing sides of the heater. Consequently, as the twopolymeric parts 2 and 4 are pulled through the rollers 14, the bondingsurfaces 2 a and 4 a are subjected to the radiant heat from the heater24. By controlling the amount of applied heat per unit area of bondingsurface as well as the speed at which the polymeric parts are pulledthrough the rollers, a temperature of the bonding surfaces and/or bulkof the polymeric parts may be controlled. While a radiant heater hasbeen depicted in the figure, as noted previously, other types of heatersmay also be used. It should be understood that the above configurationcan be modified for use with multiple layers as well as the disclosureis not limited to heating arrangements for any particular number oflayers being bonded.

FIG. 10 depicts one embodiment of a roll bonding system 100 designed forperforming plasticity induced bonding of polymer films. The roll bondingsystem includes an outer frame 102 used for supporting two opposingcylindrical rollers 104 a. The two cylindrical rollers are movablysupported on the outer frame using two U shaped roller frames 106through which two separate rotary shafts 104 b are mounted. The rollerframes 106 are mounted to two separate stages 108 a. The stages areslidingly mounted on a linear rail 108 b. The stages carrying therollers 104 a may be translated along the long axis of the rail toadjust a distance between the rollers. However, embodiments in which thestages are fixed relative to the outer frame are also contemplated. Theposition of stages 108 a, and correspondingly the rollers 104, may beadjusted using the two threaded-rods 110 a and 110 b using the depictedposition adjustment mechanisms 112 a and 112 b corresponding to arotatable handle and locking nut arrangement respectively. While aparticular arrangement for adjusting the position of the rollers hasbeen depicted, it should be understood that other possible arrangementsmight be used including, for example, stepper motors and associatedthreaded shafts, hydraulic actuators, electrical solenoids, and anyother appropriate arrangement. The rollers 104 a are powered using amotor 118 mounted to the outer frame 102. The motor 118 is drivinglyconnected to an appropriate transmission system 120 for transferring themotor output to the rollers. For example, as depicted in the figures,the motor and transmission may include a system of pulleys and doublesided timing belts using a stepper-motor. The stepper motor is attachedto the outer frame. During operation of the roll bonding system, anappropriate level of tension may be maintained in the timing belt usedto drive the pulleys on the rotary shafts through the use of an idlerpulley that accommodates slack in the timing belt as the rollers arebrought closer together. While the depicted transmission systemtransfers power to both rollers, embodiments in which power is onlytransferred to one of the rollers and the other is permitted tofreewheel are also contemplated. Additionally, embodiments in which theindividual rollers have separate motors associated with them may also beimplemented. While a particular arrangement of components has beendescribed above and depicted in the figure, it should be understood thatany appropriately configured rolling system may be used to form aplasticity induced bonding process.

In order to facilitate application of a desired line loading and/ortotal applied strain, it may be desirable to prevent unwanteddeflection, deformation, and/or failure of the various components when acompressive load is applied by the rollers. Thus, in some embodiments, acompliance of the roll bonding system may be minimized. Alternatively,or in addition to the above, a compliance curve of the roll bondingsystem may be measured and used to correct for a compliance of thesystem in order to provide a desired line loading and/or total appliedstrain. Essentially, in order to provide a desired deformation for abonding process, it may be desirable to minimize, or eliminate,excessive deflection, plastic deformation, and failure of the variouscomponents of a bonding system being used in a plasticity inducedbonding process.

In addition to the basic physical components of the roll bonding system100, various sensors may be integrated with the system. For example, thedistance between the rollers 104 a may be measured using a micrometer orother appropriate length measurement device as noted previously.Additionally, a load cell 114 may be mounted between one or both of therollers 104 a and the associated threaded rods 110 a and 110 b in orderto measure the compressive loads applied to materials passing throughthe rollers. Specifically, in the depicted embodiment, the load cell islocated between one of the roller frames 106 and the threaded rods.

In one embodiment, during operation of the roll bonding system, one ofthe stages 108 a is held stationary while the other is adjusted to adesired position. The other stage may then be adjusted to an appropriateposition to provide a desired gap between the rollers 104 a. Forexample, as depicted in the figure, the position of the rightmost rollerassociated with the locking nut arrangement, position adjustmentmechanisms 112 b, is held stationary while the roller associated withthe handle, position adjustment mechanism 112 a, is adjusted to adesired position by rotating the handle to drive the associated threadedrod 110 a. Correspondingly, the rotatory motion of the handle drives thethreaded rod 110 a causing the associated stage 108 a to translate alongthe long axis of the rail 108 b to a desired position. In someembodiments, one or more extensional springs 120 may be used to mountone, or both of the roller frames 106 to the associated threaded rods110 a and 110 b. However, other methods of retaining the rollersrelative to a particular component of the roll bonding system may alsobe used including, for example, captured ball joints, capturedrotational bearings, or any other appropriate configuration as thedisclosure is not so limited.

Once appropriately positioned, a roll bonding system may be operated ineither a constant load mode or a constant displacement mode. In aconstant load mode the position of the unlocked stage 108, andassociated roller 104 a, may be adjusted until a desired magnitude offorce, corresponding to a desired compressive pressure, is measured bythe load cell. This may either be done manually as in the depictedsystem, or it may be controlled automatically using a controller, motor,and feedback loop. Alternatively, in a constant displacement mode thedistance between the rollers may be measured and set using anappropriate distance measuring device such as a micrometer 116. Againthis may either be done manually or automatically using an appropriatecontroller, motor, and feedback loop associated with the distancemeasuring device.

EXAMPLE Plastic Deformation Analysis

FIG. 11 is a schematic representation of a perfect plastic deformationanalysis of the line loading of a thin strip using two opposing rollersfor the purpose of estimating the loads when an incoming strip is passedthrough the rollers to produce an appreciable reduction in thickness andthe desired plastic deformations are large compared with the elasticdeformation. It should be understood that such an analysis involvesvarious assumptions and only provides an estimate of the expecteddeformations and stresses applied during a rolling process. In general,the total strain (e^(total))comprises both plastic (e^(p),non-recoverable) and elastic (e^(e) recoverable) strains i.e.e^(total)=e^(e)+e^(p). To a first approximation the elastic strain canbe ignored assuming that the plastic strains will dominate in thisdeformation processing situation, i.e. e^(total) is about e^(p). Thematerial can therefore be treated as a rigid-plastic, i.e. a materialwhich is perfectly rigid prior to yielding and perfectly plasticafterwards. If the depicted rollers are also considered to be rigid, theelastic deformation of the rollers can also be neglected. Typically whenthe coefficient of friction between the rollers and strip is large,and/or the strip has a lower yield strength the frictional traction atthe interface exceeds the yield stress of the strip in shear so thatthere is no slip in the conventional sense at the surface i.e. plasticshear will take place in the rolled stock, while the surface will“stick” to the rolls with static friction. Here, an elementary theorybased on a no-slip assumption is applied. In addition to the above, itcan be assumed that a homogenous deformation has been applied to thestrip implying that vertical segments of the bar deform vertically, asif they were separated from each other, so that no shear stress canarise in them. FIG. 11, shows the rigid-plastic rolling model.

The mean longitudinal (compressive) stress in the strip is denoted by σ_(x) and the transverse stress at the surface by σ _(z). The equilibriumof the element gives

σ _(z) dx=(p cos ϕ+q sin ϕ)2Rdϕ  (1)

and

d(hσ _(x))=(p sin ϕ−q cos ϕ)2Rdϕ  (2)

Since it has been assumed that a plane strain condition exists along they-direction e_(y)=δe_(y)=ė_(y)=0. This in accordance with Levy-Misesflow rule leads to

$\begin{matrix}{{\overset{\_}{\sigma}}_{y} = {\frac{1}{2}\left( {{\overset{\_}{\sigma}}_{x} + {\overset{\_}{\sigma}}_{z}} \right)}} & (3)\end{matrix}$

This implies that stress in the y-direction is the mean of those in xand z directions. Since the von mises yield criterion is based on theequivalent stress, the plastic flow zone there is

σ _(z)−σ _(x) =Y=2k  (4)

Although it has been assumed to be a homogenous state of stress in theelement, which is not the case at the surface, equations 1, 2, and 4 canbe combined to get

$\begin{matrix}{{\frac{d}{d\; \varphi}{h\left( {p + {q\; \tan \; \varphi} - {2k}} \right)}} = {2{R\left( {{p\; \sin \; \varphi} - {q\; \cos \; \varphi}} \right)}}} & (5)\end{matrix}$

This is also known as von Karman's equation. For relatively large rollswe assume sin ϕ≈ϕ and cos ϕ≈1 etc. and retain only first order terms inϕ. The roll profile is then

h≈h _(o) +Rϕ ² ≈h _(o) +x ² /R  (6)

Making these approximations in equation 5 and neglecting the term q tanϕ compared with p, and changing the position variable from ϕ to x thefollowing is obtained

$\begin{matrix}{{h\; \frac{dp}{dx}} = {{4k\; \frac{x}{R}} + {2q}}} & (7)\end{matrix}$

As an approximation h can be replaced by the mean thickness

$\overset{\_}{h} = {\frac{1}{2}\left( {h_{o} + h_{i}} \right)}$

and q can be assumed to reach the yield stress k (where k=2/sqrt(3)K,where K is the shear yield stress) throughout the contact arc. Equation7 then becomes

$\begin{matrix}{{h\; \frac{dp}{dx}} = {2{k\left( {{2\; \frac{x}{R}} \pm 1} \right)}}} & (8)\end{matrix}$

The positive sign applies to the entry region where the strip is movingslower than the rolls and the negative sign applies to the exit.Equation 8 can be integrated, with boundary conditions that σ _(x)=0 atentry and exit, to give the pressure distribution at entry as

$\begin{matrix}{{\frac{\overset{\_}{h}}{a}\left( {\frac{p}{2k} - 1} \right)} = {\left( {1 - {x/a}} \right) - {\frac{a}{R}\left( {1 - {x^{2}/a^{2}}} \right)}}} & (9)\end{matrix}$

and at exit

$\begin{matrix}{{\frac{\overset{\_}{h}}{a}\left( {\frac{p}{2k} - 1} \right)} = {{{- x}/a} - \frac{{ax}^{2}}{{Ra}^{2}}}} & (10)\end{matrix}$

The pressure at the neutral point is common to both these equations,which locates that point at

$\begin{matrix}{\frac{x_{n}}{a} = {{- \frac{1}{2}} + \frac{a}{2R}}} & (11)\end{matrix}$

The line loading per unit width is then found to be

$\begin{matrix}{\frac{P}{ka} = {{\frac{1}{ka}{\int_{- a}^{0}{{p(x)}{dx}}}} \approx {2 + {\frac{a}{\overset{\_}{h}}\left( {\frac{1}{2} - {\frac{1}{3}\frac{a}{R}}} \right)}}}} & (12)\end{matrix}$

and the moment applied to the rolls is found to be

$\begin{matrix}{\frac{M}{{ka}^{2}} = {{\frac{1}{ka}{\int_{- a}^{0}{{{xp}(x)}{dx}}}} \approx {1 + {\frac{a}{4\; \overset{\_}{h}}\left( {1 - \frac{a}{R}} \right)}}}} & (13)\end{matrix}$

If it is assumed that k=Y/2=3 MPa, h1=1 mm, ho=0.8 mm, then 2d=0.2 mm(indicating 20% plastic compression). If R is chosen to be 100 mm thena=4:47 mm. Substituting these variables in equation 19, P is estimatedto be about 5.91×10⁴ N/m. If a width of 20 mm is assumed, then load Lworks out to be nearly 1182 N. Again if an approximate speed is about 3cm/min then residence time is about 8:94 seconds. It is worth mentioningthat rigid-plastic analysis does not take into account any strainhardening, and in an actual process compression loads may be larger.However, in this analysis, the moment per unit depth works out to beabout 94.44 N and hence a total torque for a 20 mm wide strip works outto be 0.124 Nm.

The rigid plastic analysis strongly suggests that it is possible toachieve bonding over a few seconds of active/plastic deformation ifrollers with R=10 cm are chosen at a feed rate of about 3 cm/min. Afterchoosing rollers for an actual roll bonding system, other machineelements such as shafts, bearings, supports, plates, belts, wereselected and sized to operate at least up to a few kilo-Newtons of load.Its worth mentioning that yield strength of the currently investigatedpolymers were about 6 MPa, and therefore only 1-2 kN of load wassufficient to achieve roll-bonding. No special loadbearing machineelements were needed. However, if polymers with large yield strengthsare to be considered, then appropriate loading considerations should betaken into account for machine design.

While the described analytical model may be used to predict stresses,strains, associated with a particular roller design, during actualoperation, like any other machine operation, the compression loads andangular-speed of rollers may either be held constant or dynamicallyupdated as the disclosure is not limited in this fashion.

EXAMPLE Deformation and Relaxation of a Polymer Chain

Without wishing to be bound by theory, polymers undergoingactive/plastic deformation exhibit enhanced molecular mobility evenbelow T_(g). FIG. 13 demonstrates the qualitative effect of stress on asmall element of the polymer 200 and Plastic-relaxation. Well belowT_(g) polymer chains are kinetically trapped in their localconfigurations and timescales for mobility (or motions) of these chainsare extremely large (for e.g. orders of several months or years). Nowconsider a material element of such a polymer 200, FIG. 13. This figureshows a particular polymer chain 204 in a locked-in state A within thesurrounding polymer chains 202. For the polymer chain 204, underconsideration, to change its orientation it needs to overcome thepotential barrier due to surrounding Van der Walls interactions withneighboring chains, and therefore it is trapped in the potential well inthe A configuration shown in FIG. 12.

Once some amount of shear stress is applied to the polymer 200 thedepicted element deforms elastically as a whole and upon removal of thestress the material element will relax back to its original state. Inthe elastic limit, shear stress applied to the material element causesshear-strain. The deformed state is indicated by configuration B of thepolymer chain 204 and surrounding polymer chains. Within the materialelement, during elastic-loading caused by shear stress, the polymerchains (or their segments) undergo flexing. The work done due toapplication of shear stress on the material volume is stored as internal(i.e. elastic) energy due to bending, torsion, rotation, etc. of severalpolymer chains which themselves are interacting with each other throughVan der Walls interactions. The sum total of elastic energies stored dueto flexing of all the polymer chains within the material volume is equalto the total elastic strain energy of the material element. For thegiven polymer chain under consideration, a rise in free-energy (orelastic energy) occurs due to its flexing, and this chain climbs up thepotential barrier set up due to surrounding chains corresponding toconfiguration B indicated in FIG. 12 depicting the potential energylandscape. So far everything is elastic and recoverable. Therefore,strains are stored as elastic or free-energy, and upon removal of theapplied stress the material element 200 relaxes back to the initialconfiguration A, as does the polymer-chain 204. However, if in the Bconfiguration, the polymer chain 204 gets a local (thermal or otherwise)perturbation or excitation then it has the ability to slip past localinhibitions and move to a totally new configuration C by hopping overthe potential barrier. Once over the potential barrier, the polymerchain 204 becomes trapped in a new potential well. However, this timegoing from B to C, the transition is not recoverable, i.e. even if thestresses are removed from the material the polymer chain 204 still wouldnot return to its original configuration A. Since the chain has changedits permanent mean configuration this is known as ‘plastic-relaxation’.Note that if the stresses are large enough then an increase in thefree-energy of the polymer chain 204 in configuration B can besufficient to facilitate the hop over the barrier. For example, the Bconfiguration may be located close to the top of the energy barrier.

The following should be noted with respect to plastic-relaxation: (1) Ifno stresses were applied, and temperature were held far below T_(g),then the transition of mean configuration of the polymer chain 204 fromA to B or A to C would not happen on experimental time scales. However,qualitatively speaking, the application of stress has enhanced themobility of the polymer chain as it goes from configuration A to B or Ato C. How long the polymer chain 204 stays in the B configuration beforeit relaxes to C is totally dependent on the molecular characteristics ofthe polymer, levels of stresses applied, and the local temperature. Itshould also be noted that the irreversible work done moving the polymerchain 204 from A to C is irrecoverable, or irreversible, mechanical workthat is dissipated into the surrounding polymer media and is usually lowat moderate rates of deformation.

In view of the above, the enhanced mobility of polymer chains due toplastic-relaxations may be used at an interface between two polymericparts to facilitate the formation of entanglements across the interfaceand thus achieve bonding.

EXAMPLE Temperature Rise During Bonding

Regarding the strain and relaxation events described above regarding thepolymer chain depicted in FIGS. 12 and 13, the material has undergoneirreversible mechanical work in the form of the plastic work done tomove the polymer chain from configuration 204 to the configuration 208.This work is dissipated into the surrounding polymer media. However,this dissipation of head leads to a negligible temperature rise asdetailed below. Specifically, in the context of a HPMC PEG-400 material:the measured heat capacity (C_(p)) of the material was measured to be1860 J/KgK and the measured density (ρ) was 1180 Kg/m³. Similarly, theestimated flow-stress (σ) was about 8 MPa and the estimated plasticstrain (ε) was about 0.5. Consequently, the adiabatic temperature riseis given by:

${\Delta \; T_{adiabetic}} = {{\left. \frac{\sigma ɛ}{\rho \; C_{P}} \right.\sim 3.6}{^\circ}\mspace{14mu} {C.}}$

In view of the above, even assuming a fully adiabatic process hardlygives any temperature rise.

EXAMPLE Entanglement Across an Interface v. Polymer Chain Length

Without wishing to be bound by theory, FIGS. 14-15B illustrate theinterplay of polymer chain length versus entanglement in bondingstrength.

FIG. 14 is a schematic representation of two polymeric parts includingpolymer chains 6 a and 6 b that do not include a polymer chain endlocated near the interface 10. Such an arrangement may occur where thepolymer chains are relatively long and few chain ends are located nearthe interface. Consequently, when the polymeric parts 2 and 4 aredeformed, fewer chain ends will be present to cross the interface 8 andform entanglements on the other side. However, it should be understoodthat bonding may still occur across the interface though it may involvefewer polymer chains and polymer chain ends.

FIGS. 15A and 15B are schematic representations of two polymeric partsincluding a polymer chain with a polymer chain end located near theinterface. Initially, the polymer chain 6 a is located on one side ofthe interface 8 in polymeric part 2. However, since the polymer chain 6a has a polymer chain end located near the interface, during plasticdeformation this polymer chain end is able to migrate across theinterface 8 and form an entanglement with the polymer chain 6 b locatedon the other side of the interface within polymeric part 4. Againwithout wishing to be bound by theory, increasing numbers of chain endslocated along the interface are associated with decreasing polymer chainlengths. However, as noted previously decreasing chain lengths also mayresult in decreased entanglement and pullout force/strength.Consequently, choosing a particular polymer chain length for use in aplasticity induced bonding application will likely be a balance betweenproviding sufficient number of polymer chain ends for formingentanglement versus providing sufficiently long polymer chains toprovide a desired bonding strength associated with those entangledpolymer chains.

EXAMPLE Material Preparation

Polymeric-films were prepared from solvent casting usinghydroxypropyl-methyl-cellulose (HPMC), trade name METHOCEL in grades E3and E15 as well as PEG-400. Appropriate amounts of E3, E15 and PEG weremixed in desired amounts with ethanol and water to obtain a homogeneoussolution using an electric stirrer over a 24 hr period. After blending,the solution was carefully stored in glass bottles and allowed to restfor 12 hr to get rid of air bubbles. Solvent casting was carried outusing a casting knife applicator from Elcometer on a heat-resistantBorosilicate glass substrate and the films were allowed to dry. Allsteps were carried out under ambient conditions of about 20°±2° C. TableI below shows the sample weights of the contents used to prepare variousfilms used in the experiments described herein.

TABLE I Composition E3 E15 Water EtOH PEG Polymer film (g) (g) (g) (g)(g) E3/E15 in 1:1-0% PEG 15 15 96 96  0 E3/E15 in 1:1-28.5% PEG 15 15 9696 12 E3/E15 in 1:1-42.3% PEG 15 15 96 96 22 E3/E15 in 1:1-59.5% PEG 1515 96 96 44 E3-alone-42.3% PEG 30  0 96 96 22 E15-alone-42.3% PEG  0 3096 96 22

Karl Fischer titration was carried out to determine the residualmoisture content in the films after drying. The estimated residualmoisture in the films is shown in Table II below.

TABLE II Residual H₂O Polymer film (% Wt.) E3/E15 in 1:1-0% PEG 3.7 E3/E15 in 1:1-28.5% PEG 7.21 E3/E15 in 1:1-42.3% PEG 4.29 E3/E15 in1:1-59.5% PEG 2.45 E3-alone-42.3% PEG 2.92 E15-alone-42.3% PEG 4.54

EXAMPLE Plasticizers

FIG. 16 qualitatively shows the effect of including a plasticizer 302 ina polymer matrix 300. Without wishing to be bound by theory, theplasticizer weakens the secondary interactions between the chains thusincreasing the free volume of the material. Additionally, theplasticizer lowers the glass transition of the polymeric material. Inresponse to the increased free volume, and increased kinetics associatedwith a lowered glass transition temperature, a macroscopic ductility (orplasticity) of the polymeric material including the plasticizer may beincreased as individual polymer chains are able to more easily slip pasteach other.

EXAMPLE Experimental Material Manufacture

In several of the presented experiments, approximately 100 μm to 150 μmthick polymeric thin films were solvent cast using appropriate solvents,a base polymer hydroxypropyl methylcellulose (HPMC) (METHOCEL e3 and e15in a 1:1 ratio), and plasticizer Polyethylene glycol 400 (PEG-400). Theproduced materials exhibited large plastic-flow characteristics and werecapable of bonding at ambient temperatures through the use ofbulk-plastic-deformation. These materials could have also been producedby a variety of other processes such as extrusion, spray deposition, andspin-coating to name a few.

EXAMPLE Glass Transition Temperature v. Plasticizer Concentration

Table III presents the glass transition temperatures of various weightpercentages of PEG-400 in HPMC E3/E15 as measured using dynamicmechanical analysis at a frequency of 1 Hz and a temperature ramp of 5°C./min.

TABLE III PEG-400 wt % Tg (° C.)    0% 185.0 28.5% 109.1 42.5%  89.760.5%  71.4

EXAMPLE Stress Strain Behavior v. Plasticizer Concentration

FIG. 17 presents true stress-strain curves for a HPMC-PEG blend withdifferent weight percent loadings of PEG in the solid-state polymer. Thepolymer including 0 wt % PEG exhibited a compressive strain limit ofabout 5%. In contrast, the polymers including 28.5%, 42.3%, and 58.5%PEG exhibited strain limits between about 35% in 45%. When subjected toa plasticity induced bonding process, the polymer films exhibiting largeplastic flow characteristics, due to the inclusion of the plasticizer,formed bonds at ambient temperature.

EXAMPLE Molecular Weight

Viscosity measurements for 2% aqueous solutions of E3 and E15 werecarried out using a HR-3 Hybrid rheometer. Using relationships betweenthe viscosity and molecular weight relationship for E3 and E15, thenumber average molecular weight (M_(n)) for E3 and E15 is approximately8,200 and 20,000, respectively.

EXAMPLE Nanoindentation

Nanoindentation tests were carried out on Triboindenter Hysitron forfilms made using E3 and E15 in a ratio of 1:1 with 0% PEG and 42.3% PEG,Testing was also conducted for E3 alone with 42.3% PEG and E15 alonewith 42.3% PEG. The experiments were carried out in a force controlledmode with a maximum force of 300 μN and a Berkovicz indenter with a rootradius of 150 nm. The film with 0% PEG film showed relatively largeindentation depths and large elastic recovery, whereas films with 42.3%PEG showed very little elastic recovery and large residual indentationdepth. Based on these behaviors, the 0% PEG film may be referred to asan ‘elastic’ film and the 42.3% PEG film may be referred to as a‘plastic’ film. Using the Oliver-Pharr method, the hardness wasestimated from the nano-indentation tests. The hardness values for:E3/E15 in a 1:1 ratio and 0% PEG was 144.0 MPa; E3/E15 in a 1:1 ratioand 42.3% PEG was 10.83 MPa; E3 alone and 42.3% PEG was 10.151 MPa; andE15 alone with 42.3% PEG was 11.48 MPa. This clearly shows that the filmwith 0% PEG is extremely “hard” relative to the films including 42.3%PEG, and as described below may be more difficult to bond in certainapplications.

EXAMPLE Roll Bonding System

FIG. 18A is a photograph of a roll bonding system 100 and a bondedpolymeric part 12 being extruded from the rollers at ambienttemperature. FIG. 18B is a photograph of the bonded part.

EXAMPLE Press Bonding

FIG. 19A shows a bonded polymeric part 12 that was formed via plasticityinduced bonding of several polymer layers at ambient temperature using apressing arrangement similar to that depicted in FIGS. 3A and 3B. FIG.19B shows bonding for multiple plastic films with increasing appliedstress during plasticity induced bonding. As shown in the figure,insufficient pressure results in no bonding while excessive pressureabove the ultimate strength of the part results in compressive failure.

EXAMPLE Bond Testing

Bonding experiments were carried out at ambient conditions using stacksof six film layers (each layer˜100 μm) for a total thickness of 0.6 mm.The stacks were fed through a designed roll-bonding machine to achieveactive plastic deformation. As described further below, peel-tests wereperformed to measure the mode-I fracture toughness (G_(c)[J/m²]) and lapspecimens were prepared to measure shear-strength (σ_(s)[MPa]). G_(c)represents the work done per unit area for debonding the interfaceduring a peel test and σ_(s) indicates the maximum shear stresssustained by the bonded interface before failure. Effective thicknessreduction was used as a measure of plastic strain for these experiments.

FIGS. 20A and 20B, show schematic representations of a lap-specimenbeing bonded and subsequently used for testing the shear strength of aplasticity induced bond in a vertical arrangement respectively.Specifically, the first and second polymeric parts 2 and 4 areoverlapped to form a lap joint as depicted in FIG. 20A. The overlappingportion was then bonded by a compressive load to form a plasticityinduced bond across the entire overlap. The resulting specimens werethen subjected to tensile loads within the planes of the thin filmscorresponding to the first and second polymeric parts 2 and 4. Due tothe particular arrangement, the specimens when under tension apply ashear stress to the bonded interface 8 in order to measure the shearstrength of the lap-joint.

FIG. 21 is a graph of shear strength versus applied compressive strainused during the plasticity induced bonding process. As illustrated inthe figure, there is a correlation between the plastic-strain (in termsof thickness-reduction of lap-specimen) and shear-strength of theplastically-welded interface. Specifically, the shear strength initiallyincreases with increasing compressive strain up to an optimal strain ofabout 13% to about 18%. Subsequently, the shear strength of the lapjoint decreases with increasing strain. As noted previously, thespecific optimal strain will likely differ depending on the particularpolymeric materials being used and the processing parameters.Additionally, these are only initial test results.

FIG. 22 presents a schematic representation of a peel testingarrangement used to measure the fracture toughness of the bondedspecimens. As indicated in the figure, a bonded interface 8 locatedbetween two polymeric parts 2 and 4 has a crack introduced in it at oneend using any of a variety of methods. The crack is then opened in acontrolled fashion by applying opposing forces F on either side of thecrack and normal to the interface. The forces and displacements appliedare measured to determine the critical energy release rate G_(c) (J/m²).G_(c) is an indication of the work done to debond the interface

FIG. 23A is a graph of the experimentally measured work done per unitarea during advance of the crack versus the applied compressive strainused during bonding. FIG. 23B is a graph of the measured actual G_(C),i.e. interface work done per unit area, versus applied compressivestrain used during bonding, and is corrected from FIG. 23A using aconservative correction factor to provide a lower bound for the actualinterface toughness, since during the peel-test there isplastic-deformation of the peel-arm. Roll-bonding tests were conductedfor a motor speed of 0.05 rev/min and 0.5 rev/min leading to a linearspeed of 3.14 cm/min and 31.4 cm/min, respectively.

Similar to the results regarding the above noted shear strength testing,the fracture toughness of the plasticity induced bond initiallyincreases with increasing total strain until an optimal strain isreached upon which the fracture toughness subsequently decreases withincreasing strain. Again, the optimal strain appears to be between about13% and 18% compressive strain according to the current test results forthis particular material. In addition to the above, it appears thatthere is at least some strain rate dependence on where the optimalamount of strain is. Specifically, the slower motor/linear speed, andthe correspondingly slower strain rate, exhibited an optimal strain thatwas higher than an optimal strain for the faster motor speed and strainrate.

In addition to the above, G_(C) results for three different filmcompositions are shown in FIG. 24. Similar to the above results, G_(C)correlates with plastic strain in a non-monotonic fashion, firstincreasing and then decreasing. Without wishing to be bound by theory,it is believed that the quantitative levels of G_(C) obtained here areattributed to the irreversible processes of chain pull-outs,disentanglement and/or scissions that occur, during debonding, and whichonly happen if plasticity-induced molecular mobilization andchain-interpenetration led to bonding. Therefore, the lowering of G_(C)or σ_(S) at larger levels of plastic strains could be explained by theanisotropic growth in micro-structure such that polymer chains orient inthe direction of principle stretch. Such chain orientation may lead toless effective chain interpenetration across the interface whichdiminishes bonding at larger strains as described below with regards toFIG. 25.

EXAMPLE Interface Entanglement v. Increasing Strain

As noted above with regards to the lap shear testing and peel testing,bonding strength and toughness decreases at large compressive strengths.Without wishing to be bound by theory, this may indicate that large inplane strains may lead to reduced interpenetration of chains across theinterface and thus reduced bonding strengths. This debonding process maycorrespond to molecular (visco-plastic) events such as chain-pulloutsand chain-scissions.

FIG. 25 is a schematic representation of polymer chains within twoadjacent polymeric parts 2 and 4 with an interface 8 that is subjectedto increasing amounts of plastic strain during a bonding process.Initially, the individual polymer chains 6 a-6 d are located in theirindividual polymeric parts. Upon subsequent deformation, the polymerchains are mobilized and become entangled across the interface 8 asnoted above in more detail. For example, the polymer chains 6 a-6 d havemigrated across the interface and become entangled with one another.However, with increasing applied strain the polymer chains becomestretched out and possibly pulled back across the interface.Consequently, above a certain amount of strain, the number of polymericchains extending across interface and entangled with one another willdecrease leading to a decreased bonding strength at larger totalstrains.

EXAMPLE Bonding and Fracture Surface Imaging

FIG. 26A is a scanning electron micrograph of a surface morphology of afilm prior to plasticity induced bonding. FIG. 26B is a scanningelectron micrograph of a surface morphology of a film after plasticityinduced bonding and de-bonding. The surface imaging of the thin-filmsrevealed the presence of micro and nano-roughness. Thus, in order toachieve conformity between the film interfaces and facilitate molecularinter-diffusion across the interface a sufficient contact pressure maybe applied to the films to bring the bonding surfaces into contact.

FIGS. 27A-27C show comparisons of film surface morphologies beforebonding and after fracture for films including E3/E15 in a ratio of 1:1with 42.3% PEG, E3 alone with 42.3% PEG, and E15 alone with 42.3% PEG.The debonded surfaces indicate events of chain-scissions or pullouts dueto fracture which are similar to the fracture surfaces reported uponfracture of polymers welded using interdiffusion.

EXAMPLE Hydrostatic Pressure

To explicitly demonstrate the role of bulk plastic deformation, ahydrostatic-die setup capable of generating large levels of hydrostaticpressure while inhibiting macroscopic plastic flow was used. Thehydrostatic-Die and a typically upsetting arrangement, where two platesare displaced towards one another with the plastic films sandwichedbetween the plates, were carried out using an Instron testing machine.Each setup was used to compress a stack of films (E3/E15 in 1:1-42.3%PEG). Using the upsetting arrangement, the stack undergoes macroscopicplastic flow and the layers bond to form an integral structure. However,in the case of the hydrostatic-die, the layers easily splayed apartafter removal illustrating that no bonding had occurred. Without wishingto be bound by theory, this indicates that plastic flow facilitates thebonding process.

EXPERIMENT Bonding of Parts Exhibiting Elastic Characteristics

Roll-bonding of two separate films including E3/E15 in a ratio of 1:1with 0% PEG film and E3/E15 in a ratio of 1:1 with 42.3% PEG wasattempted. As noted above, the films with 0% PEG exhibited relativelynegligible plastic flow characteristics as compared to the filmsincluding 42.3% PEG. The combined film stack had a thickness of 0.2 mmand was compressed by 0.6 mm. However, no bonding occurred during therolling process. Without wishing to be bound by theory, this is believedto be due to the observed plasticity localizing in the film including42.3% PEG, and not the other film with 0% PEG. This limiting ofplasticity to one film did not promote bonding across the interface.This highlights how it may be desirable in some embodiments to induceplastic deformation in both parts during a bonding process to promoteinterpenetration and entanglement of polymer chains across a bondinginterface. This may be accomplished by providing materials that undergoplastic deformation during at least one common range of pressures.

EXAMPLE Ethylene Glycol Diethyl Ether

Polymer films including E3/E15 in a ratio of 1:1 with 42.3% Ethyleneglycol diethyl ether used as a plasticizer were produced. The filmsexhibited a T_(g) of about 124° C. Roll bonding reduced the film stackthickness by nearly 50% and resulted in a plasticity induced bond. Thisillustrates that other plasticizers other than PEG may be used tocontrol the plasticity of a material, and thus, facilitate the use ofplasticity induced bonding.

EXAMPLE Polyvinylpyrrolidone

Polymer films made from polyvinylpyrrolidone (Kollicoat) and 10% PEGwere arranged in a film stack with a thickness of 1.19 mm. The filmstack was deformed to a final thickness of 0.66 mm which resulted inplasticity induced bond between the films. Plasticity induced bondingwas also used to bond films made using polyvinylpyrrolidone with 20% PEGstarting with an initial thickness of 1.44 mm which was deformed to afinal thickness of 0.65 mm.

EXAMPLE Different Molecular Weights

Plasticity induced bonding was also used to bond polymer films havingdifferent molecular weights. Films of polyvinyl acetate (PVA) including10% PEG were made with different molecular weight PVA's, 31 k and 146 k.A film stack made using the 31 k molecular weight PVA had an initialthickness of 0.71 mm and was deformed to 0.54 mm. A film stack madeusing the 31 k molecular weight PVA had an initial thickness of 0.94 mmand was deformed to 0.56 mm. In both cases, the films bonded to oneanother illustrating that plasticity induced bonding may be used acrossa range of polymer molecular weights.

EXAMPLE Roller Design Analysis

Referring again to the roller analysis presented in FIG. 11, an analysisof a rigid plastic rolling process this provided in more detail below.In this analysis, a response surface of a nondimensionalized plot of theratio of roller radius to initial part thickness is plotted versusangular velocity and plastic-streaming time. While particular values andsolutions are presented in the service, should be understood that otherpossible roller designs and solutions might also be used as thedisclosure is not limited to any particular arrangement or configurationof the components described herein. In view of the above, the followingrelationships may be derived.

$\begin{matrix}{\tau = \frac{\theta}{\omega}} & (14) \\{{\sin (\theta)} = \frac{a}{R}} & (15) \\{d = \frac{a^{2}}{2R}} & (16) \\{{h_{i} - h_{o}} = {R\; {\sin^{2}\left( {\tau \; \omega} \right)}}} & (17)\end{matrix}$

Rearranging the above equations, the following non-dimensionalizedradius relationship is obtained.

$\begin{matrix}{\frac{R}{h_{i}} = {\left( \frac{h_{i} - h_{o}}{h_{i}} \right)\frac{1}{\sin^{2}\left( {\tau \; \omega} \right)}}} & (18)\end{matrix}$

Now considering a range of times between 0 and 10 seconds, and a radialvelocity between 0 and 0.5 rad/sec, five different solutions to thenon-dimensionalized radius are plotted for plastic strains ranging from0.1 to 0.5. Again while several possible roller geometries are presentedfor the given operating factors, other geometries are also contemplated.Possible combinations of time, radial speed, and roller radius toprovide a desired strain rate using the above relationship are depictedin FIG. 28.

EXAMPLE Additional Materials

In addition to HPMC and PEG based materials, proof-of-concept tests wereperformed on other polymeric materials to show that they are capable ofbonding at ambient temperatures using plasticity induced bondingmethods. Tested materials that were capable of being bonded usingplasticity induced bonding at ambient temperatures included Poly(methylmethacrylate) (PMMA), Polystyrene (PS), and Polycarbonate (PC) as wellas pharmaceutically compatible polymers such as polyvinyl acetate (PVA),hydroxypropylcellulose (HPC), polyvinylpyrrolidone (trade nameKollidon).

While the present teachings have been described in conjunction withvarious embodiments and examples, it is not intended that the presentteachings be limited to such embodiments or examples. On the contrary,the present teachings encompass various alternatives, modifications, andequivalents, as will be appreciated by those of skill in the art.Accordingly, the foregoing description and drawings are by way ofexample only.

1-19. (canceled)
 20. An apparatus comprising: a pressing elementconstructed and arranged to apply a compressive force to a first part incontact with a second part; a controller in electrical communicationwith the pressing element, wherein the controller controls the pressingelement to apply a compressive stress to the first part and the secondpart that is greater than a yield strength and less than an ultimatecompressive strength of both the first part and the second part, andwherein the controller controls the pressing element to plasticallydeform the first part and the second part to a compressive plasticstrain between about 1% and a compressive strain limit of both the firstpart and the second part.
 21. The apparatus of claim 20, furthercomprising one or more sensors associated with the pressing element andin electrical communication with the controller, wherein the controllercontrols the applied compressive stress and/or compressive strain basedon input from the one or more sensors.
 22. The apparatus of claim 20,wherein the pressing element is constructed and arranged to apply asubstantially plane strain plastic deformation to the first part and thesecond part.
 23. The apparatus of claim 20, further comprising a heatingelement constructed and arranged to heat at least one of a bondingsurface of the first part and the second part while leaving a bulk ofthe first part below a glass transition temperature of the first partand a bulk of the second part below a glass transition temperature ofthe second part.
 24. The apparatus of claim 20, wherein the controllercontrols the compressive stress to be between about 2 and 5 times ayield strength of both the first part and the second part.
 25. Theapparatus of claim 20, wherein the pressing element comprises a roller.26. The apparatus of claim 20, wherein the pressing element comprises aplaten.